Chemiluminescence compact imaging scanner

ABSTRACT

Systems, devices, and methods for accurately imaging chemiluminescence and other luminescence are disclosed. A compact, flat-bed scanner having a light-tight enclosure, one or more detector bars of linear charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) imaging chips, and high working numerical aperture (NA) optics scans closely over a sample in one direction and then the opposite direction. Averages or other combinations of intensity readings for each pixel location (x, y) between the two or more passes are averaged together in order to compensate for luminescence that varies over time. On-chip pixel binning and multiple clock frequencies can be used to maximize the signal to noise ratio in a CCD-based scanner.

CROSS-REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional PatentApplication No. 61/576,941, filed Dec. 16, 2011, the contents of whichare hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

STATEMENT AS TO RIGHTS TO INVENTIONS MADE UNDER FEDERALLY SPONSOREDRESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

Not Applicable

COPYRIGHT NOTICE

A portion of the disclosure of this patent document contains materialwhich is subject to copyright protection. The copyright owner has noobjection to the facsimile reproduction by anyone of the patent documentor the patent disclosure, as it appears in the Patent and TrademarkOffice patent file or records, but otherwise reserves all copyrightrights whatsoever.

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

Generally, this application relates to molecular biology andmicrobiology chemistry processes and apparatuses including opticalmeasuring or testing means. Certain embodiments relate to devices,systems, and methods for imaging assays exhibiting chemiluminescence orother luminescence.

2. Background

Detecting and identifying certain biomolecules can be important instudying biological systems, such as plants and animals. Such systemsmay exhibit only small amounts of a biomolecule, such as a protein,which in some instances may only be accurately measured by high-end,laboratory-grade equipment and processes. Many assay techniques havebeen developed over the last decades for accurately acquiring suchmeasurements.

A variety of assays use enhanced chemiluminescence (CL) to detect smallquantities of a biomolecule. Techniques using an Enzyme-linkedImmunosorbent Assay (ELISA) or a Western Blot are often used to detectlow abundance proteins.

Chemiluminescence techniques differ from fluorescence in that no outsideexcitation light is needed. Therefore, there is virtually no lightemission from areas of the assay where the chemiluminescence reaction isnot happening, and thus there exists a very low optical background. Thisis one of the primary reasons for the ability to detect low amounts ofoptical emissions in CL assays.

Chemiluminescence emitted optical signals are typically characterizedby: being 1) weak and 2) non-constant over time. Weakness of the opticalsignals drives the need for high signal-to-noise detection methods. Theuse of high-efficiency imaging optics and extremely low noise detectorsare taught in the art for measuring chemiluminescence. The non-constantnature of light emission of typical chemiluminescence substratesnaturally implies using whole-image capturing methods. Such imagingallow for collecting equal amounts of light from all emitting areas ofthe assay at the same time and over long integration times.

In the past, one of the most common methods for capturing opticalemissions from a CL assay was the use of photographic film. One wouldexpose a photographic film in close proximity to a light-emittingWestern Blot, for example. However, there are a number of limitations tousing film. Oftentimes, film exhibits a non-linear response to impingingphotons and has limited dynamic range. There is also the need forcareful handling of undeveloped film and special dark-room facilitiesand chemicals to develop and process the film.

Furthermore, there is often a need to digitally capture an image of theassay in order to store it for future reference. To accomplish this,film users often capture an image of developed film using a digitalcamera or a flat-bed scanner. This approach requires additional imagingequipment, can be non-quantitative, and is prone to errors in imagecapture and reproduction.

Directly imaging the optical emissions of a CL assay using a digital,Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) camera can overcome many of the difficultiesassociated with using photographic film. CCD cameras provide a linearresponse to impinging photons over a wide dynamic range, no chemicalsare needed for developing, and digital data can be read directly fromthe digital camera and easily stored for further analysis andquantification. Exposing a high-quality, cryogenically-cooled CCD arrayto a Western Blot over a long period of time in a very dark room hasbeen taught in the art. A number of such CCD-based imagers exist on themarket nowadays that achieve sensitivity that is comparable to film. Anexample of a CCD-based imager is the LI-COR Odyssey® Fc imager. TheCCD-based imagers have deeply cooled chips that are highly sensitive tolight.

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors have beendeveloped in parallel with CCD sensors. Unlike those for CCDs, eachpixel in a CMOS image sensor has its own charge-to-voltage conversioncomponents. This can result in lower uniformity than CCD image sensors.However, as lithographic and other manufacturing processes improve, CMOSimage sensor uniformity has become less of an issue. As the technologyimproves, CMOS image sensor arrays may be used in place of CCD imagesensor arrays in many markets.

There exists a need in the art for a small, inexpensive, digitalalternative to CL imaging by film that attains the same or bettersensitivity.

BRIEF SUMMARY

The present application is related to a compact, flat-bed scanner forcapturing images of very dim chemiluminescence or other luminescencefrom an assay without the need for deeply cooled CCDs. Under alight-tight cover in an embodiment, a detector bar of linear CCDs andhigh working numerical aperture (NA) optics is swept in close proximityto a sample exhibiting chemiluminescence in order to capture light. Thedetector bar is then swept back in the opposite direction to capturemore light. Because of the extremely low light from chemiluminescenceand commensurate dearth of photons for the CCD to pick up, each sweep orpass might take a few minutes. A final image is constructed by taking anaverage of—or otherwise combining—the two (or more) pixel readings ateach point from the first and second passes so as to compensate forchanging luminescence over the few minutes that it takes for the scans.More passes can be used as well.

The detector bar can have staggered columns of low-cost, uncooled linearCCD integrated circuits (ICs). Multiple detector bars can be used tosweep across the sample, which can shorten the scan time, minimizing theeffect of the sample's changing luminescence over time. On-chip binningcan combine multiple pixel readings together before they are read off aCCD chip, and novel clocking mechanisms can facilitate clean datacollection. In some embodiments, the detector bar moves and the samplestays still, while in other embodiments the opposite occurs.

Some embodiments of the present invention are related to a luminescencescanner apparatus. The apparatus includes a sample bed configured tohold a luminescent sample medium, a detector bar comprising one or moreimage sensor arrays, each sensor array having a plurality of pixelelements, the pixel elements of each sensor array adapted to detectphotons simultaneously with one another, the detector bar configured tomove with respect to the sample bed, a motor configured to move thedetector bar with respect to the sample bed in a first pass in a firstdirection and then move the detector bar with respect to the sample bedin a second pass in a second direction opposite the first direction, acircuit adapted to combine a pixel reading from a position in the firstpass with a pixel reading from the position in the second pass, and acircuit adapted to construct a two-dimensional image from the combinedpixel readings.

The embodiments can combine the pixel readings by averaging pixelreadings at each location from the first and second (or more) passes.The one or more image sensor arrays can include linear CCD integratedcircuits (ICs) staggered with respect to each other along the detectorbar and so that they overlap longitudinally.

The embodiments can include a second detector bar comprising one or moreimage sensor arrays, the second detector bar configured to move withrespect to the sample bed, wherein the detector bars are configured topredominantly scan over different, non-overlapping areas of the samplebed, and a circuit configured to construct the two-dimensional imagefrom pixel readings from both the detector bars. Minimal overlap may beemployed to facilitate image registration and reconstruction.

A gradient index (GRIN) lens array can be disposed between the samplebed and the one or more linear image sensor arrays, the GRIN lens arrayhaving a working numerical aperture (NA) of greater-than-or-equal-to0.10, 0.20, 0.25, or more. The GRIN lens array can be disposed between 1and 100 millimeters of a sample positioned by the sample bed.

Some embodiments are directed to a luminescence scanner apparatus. Theapparatus includes a sample bed configured to hold a luminescent samplemedium, an integrated circuit (IC) charge-coupled device (CCD) imagesensor array having a plurality of pixel elements, the pixel elementsadapted to store photon-induced charges simultaneously with one another,the image sensor array configured to move with respect to the samplebed, a motor configured to move the image sensor array with respect tothe sample bed, a circuit adapted to sum multiple photo-charges fromadjacent CCD pixel elements into a readout capacitor of the CCD imagesensor array, and a circuit adapted to read the summed photo-chargesfrom the readout capacitor and construct an image using the summedphoto-charges.

The method apparatus can further include a circuit adapted to apply twoor more distinct CCD clock frequencies to an input of each of the one ormore integrated circuit CCD image sensor arrays, the input adapted toshift photon-induced charges from the pixel elements to an output of theintegrated circuit CCD image sensor array.

Some embodiments are directed to a luminescence scanner apparatus. Theapparatus includes a sample bed configured to hold a luminescent samplemedium, an integrated circuit (IC) charge-coupled device (CCD) imagesensor array having a plurality of pixel elements, the pixel elementsadapted to store photon-induced charges simultaneously with one another,the image sensor array configured to move with respect to the samplebed, a motor configured to move the image sensor array with respect tothe sample bed, a circuit adapted to apply two or more distinct CCDclock frequencies to an input, such as a pin, of the integrated circuitCCD image sensor array, the input adapted to shift photon-inducedcharges from the pixel elements to an output of the integrated circuitCCD image sensor array, and a circuit adapted construct an image fromthe output of the integrated circuit CCD image sensor array.

Some embodiments are directed to a method for acquiring an image of aluminescent medium. The method includes placing a luminescent mediumwithin an enclosure of a scanning device, moving an image sensor arrayin a first direction with respect to the luminescent medium in a firstpass across the luminescent medium, the image sensor array having aplurality of pixel elements adapted to detect photons simultaneouslywith one another, detecting luminescence using the pixel elements duringthe first pass, moving the image sensor array in a second direction withrespect to the luminescent medium in a second pass across theluminescent medium, the second direction being opposite the firstdirection, combining a pixel reading from a position in the first passwith a pixel reading from the position in the second pass, andconstructing an image from the combined pixel readings from the firstand second passes

Some embodiments are directed to a method for acquiring an image from aluminescent medium. The method can include fixing target biomolecules toa sample medium in a spatial pattern, the pattern including informationabout an identity of the target biomolecules, probing the targetbiomolecules with a primary probe biomolecule that has a bindingaffinity for the target biomolecule, and probing the primary probebiomolecule with a secondary probe biomolecule that has a bindingaffinity for the primary probe biomolecule, the secondary probebiomolecule having enzymatic activity that triggers the generation ofdetectable energy through a change in a substrate biomolecule, wherebythe substrate biomolecule is a substrate for the enzymatic activity ofthe secondary probe biomolecule. The method further includes moving animage sensor array across the sample medium in at least one spatialdimension in a first pass, reading luminescence by the image sensorarray during the first pass, and constructing an image from theluminescence read by the image sensor array.

The method can further include moving the image sensor array across thesample medium in the at least one spatial dimension in a second pass,reading luminescence by the image sensor array during the second pass,combining luminescence readings taken at a position from the first andsecond passes, and constructing the image from the combined readingstaken at the position from the first and second passes.

The embodiments can use various sample mediums, including membranes(e.g., nylon or nitrocellulose), plates, glass or plastic surfaces, etc.

With reference to the remaining portions of the specification, includingthe drawings and claims, one of ordinary skill in the art will realizeother features and advantages of the present invention. Further featuresand advantages of the present invention, as well as the structure andoperation of various embodiments of the present invention, are describedin detail below with respect to the accompanying drawings. In thedrawings, like reference numbers indicate identical or functionallysimilar elements.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A illustrates a compact imaging scanner in accordance with anembodiment.

FIG. 1B illustrates the scanner of FIG. 1A with its lid closed.

FIG. 2 is an exploded illustration of a detector bar in accordance withan embodiment.

FIG. 3 illustrates a top view of a sample bed with a single detector barin accordance with an embodiment.

FIG. 4 illustrates a top view of a sample bed with multiple detectorbars in accordance with an embodiment.

FIG. 5 is a chemiluminescence plot with respect to time on multiplesweeps.

FIG. 6 illustrates an elevation, cross-section view of high NA opticsplacement in accordance with an embodiment.

FIG. 7 illustrates a top view of simplified linear CCD array pixels inaccordance with an embodiment.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of a process in accordance with an embodiment.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart of a process in accordance with an embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Presented herein is a novel imaging method and apparatus that achievesthe sensitivity of high-end CCD imagers but with a significantly smallersize and without the need for cooling. The imaging apparatus cantherefore be produced and maintained at a much lower cost than before.

In chemiluminescence imagers of the prior art, the choice of the CCD,its packaging, and its electronics are often primarily driven by theneed for low total noise. This typically requires the use of high-end,scientific CCDs. These scientific CCDs are typically small in size, inthe range of 1 centimeter (cm)×1 cm. The size of a typical Western Blotis on the order of 10 cm×10 cm. Thus, low NA lenses and other imagingoptics are needed to project the sample area onto to the smaller CCDarea at the appropriate focal lengths. Such imaging requires a totaloptical path of hundreds of millimeters (mm), which results in aphysically large imager.

The larger the sample, the longer the working distance. The longer theworking distance, the lower the collection efficiency of the lenses.This causes the need to collect light for a longer periods of time, andthis in turn invariably requires even low-noise, scientific CCDs to becooled in order to keep internal dark (thermal) noise under control.These conditions are among the reasons for the relatively high cost ofCCD-based chemiluminescence imagers of the prior art.

Terms

A “Limit-of-Detection (LOD)” includes a smallest concentration of asample that can be reliably detected, producing a signal that is threetimes as large as the standard deviation of the system noise level, oras otherwise known in the art.

An “image sensor array” includes sensors of CCD, CMOS, and othertechnologies that can detect light or other electromagnetic radiationcontemporaneously in multiple pixels, its pixels arranged in aone-dimensional, two-dimensional, or other array, and as otherwise knownin the art. An image sensor array with pixels arranged in one-dimension(i.e., a line) can include a linear CCD or a linear CMOS sensor, forexample.

A “linear CCD” includes a charge-coupled device that is substantiallylonger and has more elements in one direction than another, orthogonaldirection or as otherwise known in the art. An example of a widelyavailable linear CCD is a Toshiba CCD Linear Image Sensor modelTCD1205DG. It has 2,048 pixels, each pixel being 14 μm long (along thelongitudinal length of the array, y-axis) and 200 μm wide (along thelateral width of the array, x-axis).

“Luminescence” includes an emission of light that is not due toincandescence or as otherwise known in the art. Luminescence includeschemiluminescence, bioluminescence, electroluminescence,phosphorescence, and other emissions that do not require opticalillumination during imaging. Chemiluminescence is due to a chemicalreaction and is one of the most common types of luminescence used todetect low abundance proteins. Bioluminescence is stimulated naturallyby a living organism. Electroluminescence is electrically induced lightemission. Phosphorescence is induced by optical charge prior to lightemission.

A “luminescent sample medium” includes a medium adapted to support orcontain a luminescent sample or as otherwise known in the art. Suchmediums include membranes, such as nylon membranes or nitrocellulosemembranes, which are typically used for Western Blot assays. Suchmediums can include wells, such as MICROTITER® microwell plates andmicro plates or other well plates of different shapes and sizes, whichare typically used for ELISA assays. Such mediums can also include flatsurfaces such as glass, plastic, etc.

“Deep cooling” includes active cooling below 10 degrees Celsius (° C.),0° C., or other low temperatures including cryogenic and non-cryogenictemperatures.

“Binning” of pixels includes combining two or pixels into oneeffectively larger pixel. For example, three 14 μm-long pixels can becombined to create one effective pixel that is approximately 3×14 μm=42μm long. The larger the pixel, the more light it collects. Larger pixelstypically require more cooling for long (e.g., greater than 100 second)exposures. “On-chip binning” is described below.

A “gradient-index (GRIN) lens” includes a lens that has a variablerefractive index. An example of a GRIN lens is Nippon Sheet Glass Ltd.Co. (NSG Group) SELFOC® microlens array model SLA-20BG-138-570-2R,distributed in the U.S. by Go!Foton Corp. of Somerset, N.J. SELFOC®microlenses are imaging lens rods. They are typically much shorter inlength and larger in diameter than light delivery fibers (e.g., fiberoptic cables). They often have properties that fiber guides do not have,such as radially varying indexes of refraction. The model SLA-20BGmicrolens has a high NA that helps with light collection, and it isshort in length. It has two rows of 1:+1 imaging GRIN-rod lenses thatare 6.89 mm-long, a working distance of 3.46 mm, and an effective lineimaging NA of approximately 0.5 at a light wavelength of 570 nanometers(nm). The diameter of each SLA lenses is approximately 1 mm.

A “sample bed” includes an area for accommodating a sample and asotherwise known in the art. Examples of a sample bed include the areaimmediately above a glass or plastic plate that supports a sample whileit is being scanned, the space that a microwell plate or micro plate isconfigured to be slid into by tray slots or drawer bearings, or othersample areas as known in the art.

Technical Advantages

There are several technical advantages of embodiments of the presentinvention over the prior art. Scanning closely over a sample, instead ofimaging the entire sample at once through lenses, allows more light tobe collected from dim luminescence. High NA optics and large effectivepixel sizes can be used to maximize the amount of photons collected. Forimaging a plate with wells that have some depth to them, scanningclosely over the sample provides an additional benefit in comparison towide area imagers. Area imagers are known to have a distortion artifact,known as parallax, which results from the fact that the imaging opticslooks at the wells from different angles. Scanning closely avoids theparallax problem and produces images of all wells in the same mannerwith minimal distortion.

Even when scanning very closely over a sample with an almost perfectphotoreceptor in a CCD, there are still too few photons from typicalchemiluminescence to scan quickly. It can take minutes to scan 10 cm andcollect sufficient light. In this time, however, the intensity ofchemiluminescence changes. A different baseline of photons would becollected between the beginning and end of the scan, and a resultingimage would be incorrectly dimmer at one end than the other. For atleast this reason, scanning over time would not be an obvious choice forimaging chemiluminescence. Nevertheless, the inventors have determinedthat a two pass scan (i.e., scanning in one direction and then scanningin the other direction) and then averaging or otherwise combining pointsfrom the scans can sufficiently compensate for the variability oftypical chemiluminescence.

Regarding cooling of a CCD, what often complicates the design for a lowlight CCD sensor is deep cooling. Deep cooling for CCDs can be attemperatures well below 0° C. In order to achieve that kind oftemperature without condensation, the CCD should be packaged with asealing mechanism. The sealing mechanism can drive up the cost and sizeof the camera as well as add maintenance and ruggedness issues. Forcameras or wide area imagers that need to collect light for greater than100 seconds, virtually any CCD, astronomic, scientific, or otherwise,needs to be cooled to well below 0° C. in order to keep its noise levelswithin reason. However, the inventors have found that an uncooled CCD orCCD that is not deeply cooled can be used in a practical, roomtemperature embodiment, keeping costs down and maintenance simple.

Figures

FIGS. 1A-1B illustrate a compact imaging scanner in accordance with anembodiment. Luminescence scanner apparatus 100 is shaped like aflat-bed, paper document-style scanner and includes lid 101, base 102,and sample bed 103. Sample bed 103 includes transparent glass or plasticas a support and is able to hold wet membranes. Two imaging scanningbars, detector bar 104 and detector bar 105, are available for scanningDetector bar 104 is parked off the upper side of the sample area whiledetector bar 105 is parked in the center of the sample area.

A tray system can be implemented in which a technician can slide orcarefully drop a tray into place over the scanning area. To minimize thedistance and amount of glass or plastic between the sensitive scan barsand the luminescent material, the plates can be supported by bearingsurfaces on the sides with no glass underneath. A well plate can besuspended at just the right focal/working distance over the detectorbar(s).

FIG. 2 illustrates a detector bar in accordance with an embodiment.Detector bar 204 includes GRIN lenses 212, shown without conformalblocks that customarily surround them, and linear CCD image sensors 213,packaged as integrated circuit (IC) chips. During assembly of a scanner,linear CCD image sensors 213 are soldered into printed circuit board(PCB) 214 and electrically connected with other circuits through ribboncable 218. The ICs house CCD pixel elements 217 protected by glasswindow 216. The CCD pixel elements include CCD photodiodes, a conductormatrix connected with a CCD transfer array, and other elements as foundin CCDs.

Guides 215 allow detector bar 204 to travel back and forth in a lateral,x direction in order to scan a sample. Protective window 211 shieldsGRIN lenses 212 from wet membranes and fixes the sample at a working,focal distance of the GRIN lenses.

Detector bar 204 includes multiple CCD image sensor ICs 213. MultipleCCD image sensors 213 are staggered in both directions so as toeffectuate a longer, contiguous line of imaging that covers the desiredtotal scan width. For example, four linear CCD chips that each image a28.67 mm-long line can be staggered 27.5 mm along their lengths and 10mm along the perpendicular direction to allow for scanning 4×27.5=110 mmwide. The packaging of each IC chip is invariably larger than its CCDphotodiode sensing array. The 10 mm offset in the lateral directionallows for placing the line imagers so that their sensor arrays havesome overlap along the longitudinal direction.

Linear CCD image sensor ICs 213 are arranged in staggered fashion 221with respect to each other longitudinally along the detector bar. Theyoverlap each other longitudinally (in the y direction) by distance 220so that an end of the line of pixels 217 from one chip are aligned withor slightly overlap the beginning of the line of pixels 217 from thenext chip. For a Toshiba TCD1205DG linear CCD chip as currentlyspecified, distance 220 should be at least 6.46±0.8 mm.

FIG. 3 illustrates a top view of a sample bed with a single detector barin accordance with an embodiment. Single detector bar scan system 300includes sample bed 303, detector bar 304 (with the tops of GRIN lenses312 shown in the figure), and stepper motor 324 coupled with detectorbar 304 to move it accurately and precisely along the x direction.Optional optical encoder 327 can be used to determine a precise positionof the detector bar at any point.

For a scan, detector bar 304 starts from end 325, moves while detectingpixels to opposite end 326, and then moves while detecting pixels backto end 325. Movement (and any stops between) from end 325 to end 326 canbe referred to as a “first pass,” and movement (and any stops between)from end 326 back to end 325 can be referred to as a “second pass.” Acombination of a first and second pass can be referred to as a“contra-directional scan.”

Detecting of pixels during a pass can occur while the detector bar isactually in motion or at miniature, stepped stops between subsequentmotions during the pass.

At each particular (x, y) position during the first pass, an amount oflight a_(x,y) is detected and stored. The total image from all the (x,y) positions from the first pass can be stored as matrix A (e.g., atwo-dimensional array). At each particular (x, y) position during thesecond pass, an amount of light b_(x,y) is detected and stored. Thetotal image from all the (x, y) positions from the second pass can bestored as matrix B. A final image can be prepared by averaging eachpoint of the A matrix with each point of the B matrix, i.e., C=(A+B)/2in matrix notation. Averaging can be done after both images are fullytaken or in small steps as each second measurement is taken.

“Combining” each point from different passes can be accomplished throughaveraging, summing (i.e., without division by the number of passes), orotherwise subjecting to a function that depends on the readings from thepoint from the multiple passes. Mathematically, an intensity I at eachlocation (x, y) on passes 1 through N can be combined in a genericfunctional relationship: I_(x,y) ^(combined)=f(I_(x,y) ^(pass 1), . . ., I_(x,y) ^(pass N)).

Combining can be accomplished in circuit 328. The circuit may be adedicated hardware or firmware circuit, or it can be a more generalpurpose memory and processor for use with other functions of the device.Circuit 328 is programmed or otherwise adapted to combine a pixelreading from a position in the first pass with a pixel reading from theposition in the second pass. Circuit 329, which can also be a generalprocessing circuit running software or a more specialized circuit, isprogrammed to construct a two-dimensional image from the combined pixelreadings. The output image can be in a format that can be read by apersonal computer or other computing device.

Multiple contra-directional scans can be performed in order to furtherrefine the image. That is, 4, 6, 8, or more passes can be used and their(x, y) pixels averaged or otherwise combined. Images from latercontra-directional scans can be weighted differently than images fromprevious contra-directional scans to statistically compensate for lessphotons being collected later from samples that dim over time. An oddnumber of passes, that is, 3, 5, 7, or more passes, can be used as well.For example in a 3-pass system, the 1^(st) and 3^(rd) passes can beaveraged together, and then the average combined with the 2^(nd) pass.

FIG. 4 illustrates a top view of a sample bed with multiple detectorbars in accordance with an embodiment.

Dual detector bar scan system 400 includes sample bed 403, detector bars404 and 405, and stepper motor 424 coupled with line imagers 404 and 405to move them accurately and precisely along the x direction. Opticalencoder 427, which can be encased in the motor, can be used to determineprecise positions of the line imagers at any point.

For a first pass, line imager 404 starts from end 425, moves whiledetecting pixels a little past the middle of sample bed 403, and thenmoves while detecting pixels back to end 425. Similarly, line imager 405starts from a little before the middle of sample bed 403, moves whiledetecting pixels to end 426, and then moves while detecting pixels backto the middle position from whence it came.

Both line imagers can be mechanically scanned together along the x-axis.To cover a scan length of 10 cm, the scanner can have the line imagersspaced 5 cm apart and both scanned 5 cm+10 mm along the x-direction. Theextra 10 mm can be to account for the x-offset in the positioning of theline imagers. In this way, both scan heads cover a common 5 cm length.

For a given exposure time per line read, the use of two scan headsinstead of one allows for scanning half the distance and thereforecovers the same area twice as fast as would be achievable with a singlescan head. Multiple scan bars for speed is not required for document orbook scanning or other externally illuminated scanning because one cancontrol and keep steady the amount of light that illuminates the target.For chemiluminescence and other dim luminescence that changes over time,multiple scan bars can reduce errors resulting from non-linear dimming.

Faster imaging can be obtained by adding even more scan heads along thex-axis. For example, 3, 4, 5, or more line imagers can scan a sample.CCDs on the imagers can be calibrated with one another before or after ascan. Adding more CCDs along the y-axis allows for scanning a wider scanarea.

An alternative way to effectuate the scan is to move the sample insteadof the scan heads with respect to the inertial frame (i.e., the ground).That is, a motor can move the sample medium back and forth while thedetector bar remains still. In other embodiments, both the sample andthe scan head can be moved opposite one another.

FIG. 5 is a chemiluminescence plot with respect to time on two sweeps.On first mechanical pass 530 of the scanner from position 0 to position10 (from 0 to 225 seconds), the signal decreases over time. On secondmechanical pass 531 of the scanner from position 10 back to position 0(from 225 to 450 seconds), the signal decreases more over time.Averaging the two passes together at each point in time—or moreaccurately, at each x location—produces a relatively flat, horizontalaverage signal 532, which is more constant than the individual signals.

A scan time on the order of a few minutes per pass is relatively shortcompared to time course changes of many CL substrates used in theWestern Blot chemiluminescence market today. Chemiluminescence ramps upquickly upon initiation (e.g., after probing with a second biomolecule),ramping up to its maximum luminescence within about 10 minutes.Luminescence intensity begins to fall off linearly for the next hour andcontinues to fade after that.

It has been found that a 2, 3, 4, or 5 minute scan time is sufficientlyshort compared to the rate of change of chemiluminescence intensity.Even though there is some change within such a window, the change isrelatively linear. Averaging or summing two contra-directional scanstogether can remove most of that change, and the result is predominantlyconstant over the scan position as shown in the figure. Thus,quantification based on actual concentration of the sample and notimager variation can be enabled.

An estimate of the residual error after contra-directional averaging canbe calculated. Assuming a constant emitted optical power P₀ fromposition 0 to position L along a scan direction x and a slow varyingchange during each pass, the power levels for the first pass P₁(x) andsecond pass P₂(x) can be represented by the functions:

$\begin{matrix}{{P_{1}(x)} = {P_{0}\left( {1 + {a\left( \frac{x}{L} \right)}^{b}} \right)}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 1} \right) \\{{P_{2}(x)} = {P_{0}\left( {1 + {a\left( \frac{{2L} - x}{L} \right)}^{b}} \right)}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 2} \right)\end{matrix}$where a and b are constants based on the type of CL substrate involvedand L is the total x-direction length. The difference (error ε) betweenthe power levels and the average can be derived as:

$\begin{matrix}{{ɛ \equiv \frac{\left\lbrack {{P_{1}(L)} + {P_{2}(L)}} \right\rbrack - \left\lbrack {{P_{1}(0)} + {P_{2}(0)}} \right\rbrack}{2P_{o}}} = {a\left( {1 - 2^{b - 1}} \right)}} & \left( {{Eqn}.\mspace{14mu} 3} \right)\end{matrix}$Given values of a=0.05 and b=0.5 (i.e., a square root dependence),contra-directional averaging reduces the error from 5% with nocorrection to less that 1.5%. The shorter the scan time, the more linearthe change, and the more accurate the correction.

FIG. 6 illustrates an elevation cross-section view of high NA opticsplacement in accordance with an embodiment. Sample 640, such as a CLWestern blot membrane, is placed on top of scan window 611. Emittedlight emanating from various points is collected by a GRIN lens array612 and projected onto a linear CCD pixel elements 617. The latter issealed with a glass window 616. A light-tight enclosure surrounds system600 to prevent ambient light from entering inside of the scanner andfouling measurements.

The top surface of scan window 611 upon which membrane 640 rests ispositioned at distance 642 from GRIN lenses 612 to be at their frontworking distance. On the other side of the lenses, the CCD pixelelements are positioned at distance 643 from GRIN lenses 612 to be attheir back working distance. It has been found that total workingdistance 641 can be much smaller than whole-sample imagers, which uselow-NA lenses.

Wide pixel sizes (e.g., 200 μm) can help with collecting more lightefficiently. To further increase light collection and obtain equalresolution in both directions, pixel charges can be binned together.

FIG. 7 is a top down view of CCD pixels in accordance with anembodiment. Photo-charges collected by multiple adjacent CCD pixels 717a through 717 c are binned together in bin 744, and photo-chargescollected by pixels 717 d through 717 f are binned together in bin 745.

For the Toshiba TCD1205DG (discussed above) having 14 μm long and 200 μmwide pixels, binning 14 pixels in a row, that is, binning by 14, resultsin an effective pixel size of 14×14 μm=196 μm, which is close to the 200μm width size of the pixels. The 196 μm×200 μm effective pixel size isalmost square. Other binning levels can be applied and scan step sizeschanged to produce higher or lower resolution scans. For example,binning by 7 and a scan step of 98 μm results in scanning resolution of98 μm in both directions.

Doubling the effective pixel size quadruples the amount of collectedlight and reduces resolution by half. For CL Western Blots, where thebands are multiple millimeters in size, an embodiment with a resolutionof 200 μm produces reasonably good quality images.

With an embodiment, comparable LOD is achievable with exposures that areorders of magnitude shorter than what is needed for wide-area imaging.For example, a 0.5 second exposure time per line read gives a similarLOD to what a commercial wide-area CCD imager can give in a 2 minuteexposure time. This short, 0.5 second exposure allows reading multiplelines, through linear scanning, to obtain an image of the same area sizein a comparable total imaging time.

On-Chip Binning

A typical linear CCD has an array of imaging diodes arranged in astraight line. When light falls on these diodes, each diode creates aphoto-charge that is proportional to the amount of light that lands onthat photodiode. After an amount of time, referred to as the exposuretime, a signal, often called diode transfer, is used to transfer thephoto-charges in the photodiodes into a CCD transfer array. The CCDtransfer array moves the individual photo-charges towards one end of theCCD transfer array. The CCD transfer array moves the photo-charges insteps. The CCD transfer array is usually controlled by at least oneclock signal and in many cases more than one clock signal. The number ofclocks required is determined by the design of the CCD involved.Typically the CCD transfer array will move the photo-charges one stepfor each clock edge of the clock signals that drive the CCD transferarray.

At the end of the CCD transfer array is a readout capacitor. As the CCDshifts photo-charges along the CCD transfer array, they eventually reachand move into this readout capacitor. As part of the readout process ofthe CCD, this capacitor is periodically pre-charged. Usually thiscapacitor is pre-charged immediately before the CCD transfer arrayshifts in a photo-charge from one photodiode. If the readout capacitoris pre-charged immediately before a photo-charge is moved into it, thechange in voltage of the readout capacitor is proportional to the amountof photo-charge injected into it by the CCD transfer array. The voltageof the readout capacitor is typically buffered by an amplifier on theCCD IC and presented on an output pin. The voltage at the output pin istypically further amplified, low pass filtered, and digitized by otherelectronics in an imaging system. Normally, pixels are read out of thelinear CCD one at a time. Therefore, electronics normally read out thephotodiode charges in alternating fashion, alternating betweenprecharging the readout capacitor, measuring and storing the pre-chargevoltage, clocking the CCD transfer array to move one photodiode chargeinto the readout capacitor, and then reading the voltage present at theoutput pin of the linear CCD array IC. At that point the photodiodecharge can be computed. The photo-charge is proportional to the changein voltage of the readout capacitor between its pre-charge voltage andvoltage with photo-charge injected.

Unfortunately the process of measuring the voltage of the readoutcapacitor is a noisy process. There are various forms of electricalnoise that add themselves into the voltage that is measured. This noisecan obscure the desired signal that is being read from the readoutcapacitor. These noise sources that corrupt the voltage read from thereadout capacitor are often referred to as “readout noise.”

A way to increase the signal-to-noise ratio in the presence of readoutnoise is to perform a readout sequence that is referred to as “on-chipbinning” In on-chip binning, the readout sequence of the CCD array ismodified. In this modified sequence the readout capacitor is pre-chargedand then the CCD array is clocked so that the photo-charges frommultiple adjacent photodiodes are moved into the readout capacitor. Thechange in voltage of the readout capacitor, and hence the output pin, isproportional to the total photo-charge moved into the readout capacitorfrom multiple photodiodes. The spatial resolution of the linear imagingsystem is reduced because photodiode charges from multiple pixels arelumped together, but the signal to noise ratio is typically improvedbecause the readout noise remains relatively constant while the changein voltage typically increases.

On-chip binning can be accomplished by controlling the readout pins of aCCD. The readout pins of a Toshiba TCD1205DG that should be controlledfor on-chip binning include Reset (RS), Boost (BT), Phase 1 (Ø1), andPhase 2 (Ø02). This can be done without a significant increase in 1/fnoise (i.e., flicker noise).

Variable CCD Clocking

An aspect of some embodiments is to vary the speed of the linear CCDreadout clocks. This can improve the signal to noise ratio of the image.As mentioned earlier there are several sources of noise that corrupt thevoltage presented by the output amplifier of the linear CCD array. Twoof the noise sources are flicker noise, often called 1/f noise, andwhite noise.

Many imaging CCD arrays implement a method for reducing flicker noise.The method is to apply a fixed preset voltage to the readout capacitorof the CCD array. The imaging system will sample and store the value ofthe preset voltage driven out of the output pin of the imaging CCDarray. After the preset voltage is measured, the imaging system willmanipulate the CCD signals to move some number of photo-charges in theCCD array into the readout capacitor. After the photo-charges have beenmoved into the readout capacitor, the imaging system will sample thevoltage presented at the output of the CCD IC. The measured and storedpreset voltage is subtracted from the photo-charge voltage. Thissubtraction tends to remove the flicker noise.

In order to provide the maximum reduction in flicker noise, it isadvantageous to sample the preset voltage and the photo-charge voltageas quickly together in time as possible. If on-chip binning is used,then the binning should occur as quickly as possible in order to causethe preset voltage and photo-charge voltages to be sampled closelytogether in time. In order to achieve the maximum binning speed, thesignals that cause the photo-charges in the CCD array to move into thereadout capacitor should be operated at a high rate. In many cases thehigh rate is the maximum recommended rate in the data sheet for theimaging CCD array. Another benefit of the fast binning is the overallreduction in readout time and therefore the total time for producing animage.

A second source of readout noise is white noise. White noise has auniform noise power over a wide range of frequencies. One method ofreducing readout noise is to electronically low pass filter the outputsignal of the CCD array. By properly limiting the bandwidth of thesignal before it is sampled, much of the white noise can be rejectedwhile allowing most of the signal to be measured. This helps increasethe signal to noise ratio. Low pass filtering reduces the slew rate ofthe readout signal presented to the imaging system from the CCD IC.

In order to accurately measure the preset voltage presented by the CCD,the CCD should be operated to cause it to present its preset voltage atthe output of the CCD, then the preset voltage must be allowed topropagate though the low pass filter. After some amount of time thepreset voltage will have settled to very close to its final value. Atthis point in time, the imaging system will sample the preset voltageand store it to remove flicker noise later. While the imaging system iswaiting for the preset voltage level to settle at the output of thewhite noise-removing low pass filter, it should cease clocking thephoto-charges through the CCD array. After sampling the preset voltage,the imaging system will clock the photo-charges into the readoutcapacitor at a high rate to accomplish on-chip binning. After the pixelshave been binned, the imaging system will stop operating the clocksignals for the CCD array. The photo-charge voltage at the output of theCCD array will be allowed to propagate through the white noise-removinglow pass filter until the voltage settles to within some desiredpercentage of its final value. At this point the imaging system willsample the photo-charge voltage.

A method of binning implemented in some embodiments results in at leastthree clocking rates of the CCD array. There is one rate in which theCCD clock signals are not operated while the preset voltage settles andis then measured. There is a second rate in which the CCD clock signalsare operated at a high rate to achieve rapid on-chip binning And thereis a third rate in which the CCD clocks are paused while thephoto-charge voltage of the binned photo-charges settles and is thenmeasured. Multiple clock-out rates in conjunction with pixel on-chipbinning can maximize the signal to noise ratio of the resulting image.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart of a process in accordance with an embodiment. Inoperation 801, a luminescent medium is placed within an enclosure of ascanning device. In operation 802, an image sensor array is moved in afirst direction with respect to the luminescent medium in a first passacross the luminescent medium, the image sensor array having a pluralityof pixel elements adapted to detect photons simultaneously with oneanother. In operation 803, luminescence is detected using the pixelelements during the first pass. In operation 804, the image sensor arrayis moved in a second direction with respect to the luminescent medium ina second pass across the luminescent medium, the second direction beingopposite the first direction. In operation 805, a pixel reading from aposition in the first pass is combined with a pixel reading from theposition in the second pass. In operation 806, an image is constructedfrom the combined pixel readings from the first and second passes.

FIG. 9 is a flowchart of a process in accordance with an embodiment. Inoperation 901, target biomolecules are fixed to a sample medium in aspatial pattern, the pattern including information about an identity ofthe target biomolecules. In operation 902, the target biomolecules areprobed with a primary probe biomolecule that has a binding affinity forthe target molecule. In operation 903, the primary probe molecule isprobed with a secondary probe biomolecule that has a binding affinityfor the primary probe biomolecule, the secondary probe biomoleculehaving enzymatic activity that triggers the generation of detectableenergy through a change in a substrate biomolecule, wherein thesubstrate biomolecule is a substrate for the enzymatic activity of thesecondary probe biomolecule. In operation 904, one scans across thesample medium in at least one spatial dimension with a charge-coupleddevice (CCD) detector, the CCD detector scanning across the samplemedium at a fixed distance of between 1 millimeter and 100 millimetersfrom the sample medium. In operation 905, an image sensor array is movedacross the sample medium in at least on spatial dimension in a firstpass. In operation 906, luminescence is read by the image sensor arrayduring the first pass. In operation 907, the image sensor array is movedacross the sample medium in the at least one spatial dimension in asecond pass. In operation 908, luminescence is read by the image sensorarray during the second pass. In operation 909, luminescence readingstaken at a position from the first and second passes are combined. Inoperation 910, an image is constructed from the combined readings takenat the position from the first and second passes. In operation 911, theidentity of the target biomolecules is determined by correlating thedetected detectable energy to the spatial pattern.

While the invention has been described by way of example and in terms ofthe specific embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention isnot limited to the disclosed embodiments. To the contrary, it isintended to cover various modifications and similar arrangements aswould be apparent to those skilled in the art. Therefore, the scope ofthe appended claims should be accorded the broadest interpretation so asto encompass all such modifications and similar arrangements.

What is claimed is:
 1. A luminescence scanner apparatus comprising: asample bed configured to hold a luminescent sample medium; a detectorbar comprising one or more image sensor arrays, each image sensor arrayhaving a plurality of pixel elements, the pixel elements adapted todetect photons simultaneously with one another, the detector barconfigured to move with respect to the sample bed, the at least one ofthe one or more image sensor arrays comprising a charge-coupled device(CCD) sensor array integrated within an integrated circuit (IC); a motorconfigured to move the detector bar with respect to the sample bed in afirst direction and move the detector bar with respect to the sample bedin a second direction opposite the first direction; a circuitoperatively coupled with the motor and having instructions to move thedetector bar with respect to the sample bed in the first direction in afirst pass and store a first pixel reading from a position in the firstpass and then to move the detector bar with respect to the sample bed inthe second direction in a second pass and take a second pixel reading atthe same position during the second pass and combine the pixel readingsof the same position from the first and second passes; a circuit havinginstructions to construct an image from the combined pixel reading; anda circuit having instructions to: apply a first CCD clock frequency tothe CCD sensor array; and then apply a fixed preset voltage to a readoutcapacitor of the CCD sensor array; sample a value of the preset voltageon one or more output pins on the CCD sensor array; and then apply asecond CCD clock frequency to the CCD sensor array; and then clockmultiple photon-induced charges from adjacent CCD pixel elements intothe readout capacitor of the CCD sensor array.
 2. The apparatus of claim1 wherein combining the pixel readings includes averaging the pixelreading from the position in the first pass with the pixel reading fromthe same position in the second pass.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1wherein the CCD sensor array is integrated within an integrated circuit(IC), the apparatus further comprising: a circuit having instructions tosum multiple photo-charges from adjacent CCD photodiodes into a readoutcapacitor of the CCD sensor array, thereby increasing a signal to noiseratio of the CCD sensor array.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein theone or more image sensor arrays are not cooled below 0 degrees Celsius.5. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the detector bar comprises aplurality of linear image sensor array integrated circuits (ICs)staggered with respect to each other along the detector bar.
 6. Theapparatus of claim 5 wherein the linear image sensor array ICs overlapone another longitudinally on the detector bar.
 7. The apparatus ofclaim 1 further comprising: a second detector bar comprising one or moreimage sensor arrays, the second detector bar configured to move withrespect to the sample bed, wherein the detector bars are configured toscan over different, non-overlapping areas of the sample bed; and acircuit having instructions to construct the image from pixel readingsfrom both of the detector bars.
 8. The apparatus of claim 7 wherein thedetector bars are further configured to scan over a common, overlappingportion of the sample bed in addition to their respectivenon-overlapping areas.
 9. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the detectorbar is configured to be moved and the sample bed is configured to bephysically stationary.
 10. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein theluminescent sample medium is selected from a nylon membrane, anitrocellulose membrane, and a well plate.
 11. The apparatus of claim 1further comprising: a gradient index (GRIN) lens array disposed betweenthe sample bed and the one or more image sensor arrays, the GRIN lensarray having a working numerical aperture (NA) ofgreater-than-or-equal-to 0.10.
 12. The apparatus of claim 11 wherein theGRIN lens array is disposed between 1 and 100 millimeters of the samplebed.
 13. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising: a light tightenclosure configured to enclose the sample bed.
 14. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein the first pass occurs over an amount of time and thesecond pass occurs over an equal amount of time.
 15. A luminescencescanner apparatus comprising: a sample bed configured to hold aluminescent sample medium; a moveable detector bar comprising one ormore image sensor arrays comprising a charge-coupled device (CCD) sensorarray integrated within an integrated circuit (IC); a circuit havinginstructions to: move the detector bar in a first pass and take a firstpixel reading at a position in the first pass; move the detector bar inan opposite direction in a second pass and take a second pixel readingat the same position during the second pass; and combine the pixelreadings of the same position from the first and second passes; acircuit having instructions to construct an image from the combinedpixel reading; and a circuit having instructions to: apply a first CCDclock frequency to the CCD sensor array; and then apply a fixed presetvoltage to a readout capacitor of the CCD sensor array; sample a valueof the preset voltage on one or more output pins on the CCD sensorarray; and then apply a second CCD clock frequency to the CCD sensorarray; and then clock multiple photon-induced charges from adjacent CCDpixel elements into the readout capacitor of the CCD sensor array. 16.The apparatus of claim 15 wherein combining the pixel readings includesaveraging the pixel reading from the position in the first pass with thepixel reading from the same position in the second pass.
 17. Theapparatus of claim 15 wherein at least one of the one or more imagesensor arrays comprises a charge-coupled device (CCD) sensor array. 18.A luminescence scanner apparatus comprising: a sample bed with a lighttight enclosure, the sample bed configured to hold a luminescent samplemedium; a moveable detector bar comprising one or more uncooledcharge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor arrays; a circuit havinginstructions to: move the detector bar in a first pass and take about0.5 second exposure pixel readings during first pass; move the detectorbar in an opposite direction in a second pass and take about 0.5 secondexposure pixel readings during the second pass; and combine the pixelreadings from the first and second passes; a circuit having instructionsto construct an image from the combined pixel readings; and a circuithaving instructions to: apply a first CCD clock frequency to the CCDsensor array; and then apply a fixed preset voltage to a readoutcapacitor of the CCD sensor array; sample a value of the preset voltageon one or more output pins on the CCD sensor array; and then apply asecond CCD clock frequency to the CCD sensor array; and then clockmultiple photon-induced charges from adjacent CCD pixel elements intothe readout capacitor of the CCD sensor array.
 19. The apparatus ofclaim 18 wherein one of the circuits has instructions to combine pixelreadings from three or more passes of the detector bar.